Human Capital free essay sample

Human capital is the stock of competences, knowledge and personality attributes embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce economic value. It is the attributes gained by a worker through education and experience. [1] Many early economic theories refer to it simply as workforce, one of threefactors of production, and consider it to be a fungible resource homogeneous and easily interchangeable. Other conceptions of this labor dispense with these assumptions. Contents [hide] †¢1 Background 2 Origin of the term †¢3 Competence and capital †¢4 Marxist analysis †¢5 Debates about the concept †¢6 Mobility between nations †¢7 Classification †¢8 Risk †¢9 See also †¢10 Notes †¢11 References †¢12 External links [edit]Background Justin Slay defined four types of fixed capital (which is characterized as that which affords a revenue or profit without circulating or changing masters). The four types were: 1. useful machines, instr uments of the trade; 2. buildings as the means of procuring revenue; 3. improvements of land; 4. he acquired and useful abilities of all the inhabitants or members of the society. We will write a custom essay sample on Human Capital or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Adam Smith defined human capital as follows: â€Å"Fourthly, of the acquired and useful abilities of all the inhabitants or members of the society. The acquisition of such talents, by the maintenance of the acquirer during his education, study, or apprenticeship, always costs a real expense, which is a capital fixed and realized, as it were, in his person. Those talents, as they make a part of his fortune, so do they likewise that of the society to which he belongs. The improved dexterity of a workman may be considered in the same light as a machine or instrument of trade which facilitates and abridges labor, and which, though it costs a certain expense, repays that expense with a profit. †. [2] Therefore, Smith argued, the productive power of labor are both dependent on the division of labor: The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgement with which it is any where directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour. There is a complex relationship between the division of labor and human capital. [edit]Origin of the term A. W. Lewis is said to have begun the field of Economic Development and consequently the idea of human capital when he wrote in 1954 the Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour. The term human capital was not used due to its negative undertones until it was first discussed by Arthur Cecil Pigou: There is such a thing as investment in human capital as well as investment in material capital. So soon as this is recognised, the distinction between economy in consumption and economy in investment becomes blurred. For, up to a point, consumption is investment in personal productive capacity. This is especially important in connection with children: to reduce unduly expenditure on their consumption may greatly lower their efficiency in after-life. Even for adults, after we have descended a certain distance along the scale of wealth, so that we are beyond the region of luxuries and unnecessary comforts, a check to personal consumption is also a check to investment. 3] The use of the term in the modern neoclassical economic literature dates back to Jacob Mincers article Investment in Human Capital and Personal Income Distribution in The Journal of Political Economy in 1958. Then T. W. Schultz who is also contributed to the development of the subject matter. The best-known application of the idea of human capital in economics is that of Mincer and Gary Becker of the Chicago Scho ol of economics. Beckers book entitled Human Capital, published in 1964, became a standard reference for many years. In this view, human capital is similar to physical means of roduction, e. g. , factories and machines: one can invest in human capital (via education, training, medical treatment) and ones outputs depend partly on the rate of return on the human capital one owns. Thus, human capital is ameans of production, into which additional investment yields additional output. Human capital is substitutable, but not transferable like land, labor, or fixed capital. Modern growth theory sees human capital as an important growth factor. Further research shows its relevance for democracy or AIDS. [4] [edit]Competence and capital The introduction is explained and justified by the unique characteristics of competence (often used only knowledge). Unlike physical labor (and the other factors of production), competence is: ? Expandable and self generating with use: as doctors get more experience, their competence base will increase, as will their endowment of human capital. The economics of scarcity is replaced by the economics of self-generation. ?Transportable and shareable: competence, especially knowledge, can be moved and shared. This transfer does not prevent its use by the original holder. However, the transfer of knowledge may reduce its scarcity-value to its original possessor. Example An athlete can gain human capital through education and training, and then gain capital through experience in an actual game. Over time, an athlete who has been playing for a long time will have gained so much experience (much like the doctor in the example above) that his human capital has increased a great deal. For example: a point guard gains human capital through training and learning the fundamentals of the game at an early age. He continues to train on the collegiate level until he is drafted. At that point, his human capital is accessed and if he has enough he will be able to play right away. Through playing he gains experience in the field and thus increases his capital. A veteran point guard may have less training than a young point guard but may have more human capital overall due to experience and shared knowledge with other players. Competence, ability, skills or knowledge? Often the term knowledge is used. Competence is broader and includes thinking ability (intelligence) and further abilities like motoric and artistic abilities. Skill stands for narrow, domain-specific ability. The broader terms competence and ability are interchangeable. Knowledge equity (= knowledge capital knowledge liability) plus emotional capital (= emotional capital emotional liability) equals goodwill or immaterial/intangible value of the company. Intangible value of the company (goodwill) plus (material) equity equals the total value of the company. [edit]Marxist analysis An advertisemen t for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in Jalan Petaling, Kuala Lumpur. In some way, the idea of human capital is similar to Karl Marxs concept of labor power: he thought in capitalism workers sold their labor power in order to receive income (wages and salaries). But long before Mincer or Becker wrote, Marx pointed to two disagreeably frustrating facts with theories that equate wages or salaries with the interest on human capital. 1. The worker must actually work, exert his or her mind and body, to earn this interest. Marx strongly distinguished between ones capacity to work, Labor power, and the activity of working. . A free worker cannot sell his human capital in one go; it is far from being a liquid asset, even more illiquid than shares and land. He does not sell his skills, but contracts to utilize those skills, in the same way that an industrialist sells his produce, not his machinery. The exception here are slaves, whose human capital can be sold, though the slave does not earn an income himself. An employer must be receiving a profit from his op erations, so that workers must be producing what Marx (under the labor theory of value) perceived as surplus-value, i. . , doing work beyond that necessary to maintain their labor power. [5] Though having human capital gives workers some benefits, they are still dependent on the owners of non-human wealth for their livelihood. The term appears in Marxs article in the New-York Daily Tribune article The Emancipation Question, January 17 and 22, 1859, although there the term is used to describe humans who act like a capital to the producers, rather than in the modern sense of knowledge capital endowed to or acquired by humans. 6] [edit]Debates about the concept Some labor economists have criticized the Chicago-school theory, claiming that it tries to explain all differences in wages and salaries in terms of human capital. The concept of human capital can be infinitely elastic, including unmeasurable variables such as personal character or connections with insiders (via family or frater nity). This theory has had a significant share of study in the field proving that wages can be higher for employees on aspects other than human capital. Some variables that have been identified in the literature of the past few decades include, gender and nativity wage differentials, discrimination in the work place, and socioeconomic status. However, Austrian economist Walter Block theorizes that these variables are not the cause of gender wage gap. Thomas J. DiLorenzo summarizes Block s theory well: marriage affects men and women very differently in terms of their future earning abilities, and is therefore an important cause of the male/female wage gap. 7] Block alleges that there is no wage gap between unmarried men and women, but married men salaries are usually more than married women. These wages, he contends, are the opportunity cost of being a mother and raising children. [8] The prestige of a credential may be as important as the knowledge gained in determining the value of an education. This points to the existence of market imperfections such as non-competing groups and labor-market segmentation. In segmented labor markets , the return on human capital differs between comparably skilled labor-market groups or segments. An example of this is discrimination against minority or female employees. Following Becker, the human capital literature often distinguishes between specific and general human capital. Specific human capital refers to skills or knowledge that is useful only to a single employer or industry, whereas general human capital (such as literacy) is useful to all employers. Economists view firm specific human capital as risky, since firm closure or industry decline lead to skills that cannot be transferred (the evidence on the quantitative importance of firm specific capital is unresolved). Human capital is central to debates about welfare, education, health care, and retirement.. [edit]Mobility between nations Educated individuals often migrate from poor countries to rich countries seeking opportunity. This movement has positive effects for both countries: capital-rich countries gain an influx in labor, and labor rich countries receive capital when migrants remit money home. The loss of labor in the old country also increases the wage rate for those who do not emigrate. When orkers migrate, their early care and education generally benefit the country where they move to work. And, when they have health problems or retire, their care and retirement pension will typically be paid in the new country. African nations have invoked this argument with respect to slavery, other colonized peoples have invoked it with respect to the brain drain or human capital flight which occurs when the most talented individuals (those with the most individual capital) depart for education or opportunity to the colonizing country (historically, Britain and France and the U. S. ). Even in Canada and other developed nations, the loss of human capital is considered a problem that can only be offset by further draws on the human capital of poorer nations via immigration. Theeconomic impact of immigration to Canada is generally considered to be positive. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, human capital in the United States became considerably more valuable as the need for skilled labor came with newfound technological advancement. The 20th century is often revered as the human capital century by scholars such as Claudia Goldin. During this period a new mass movement toward secondary education paved the way for a transition to mass higher education. New techniques and processes required further education than the norm of primary schooling, which thus led to the creation of more formalized schooling across the nation. These advances produced a need for more skilled labor, which caused the wages of occupations that required more education to considerably diverge from the wages of ones that required less. This divergence created incentives for individuals to postpone entering the labor market in order to obtain more education. The â€Å"high school movement† had changed the educational system for youth in America. With minor state involvements, the high school movement started at the grass-roots level, particularly the communities with the most homogeneous populations. As a year in high school added more than ten percent to an individual’s income, post-elementary school enrollment and graduation rates increased significantly during the 20th century. The U. S. ystem of education was characterized for much of the 20th century by publicly funded mass secondary education that was open and forgiving[citation needed], academic yet practical[citation needed], secular[citation needed], gender neutral, and funded by small, fiscally independent districts. This early insight into the need for education allowed for a significant jump in US productivity and economic prosperity, when compared to other world leaders at the time. It is suggested by several economists, that there is a positive correlation between high school enrollment rates and GDP per capita. Less developed countries have not established a set of institutions favoring equality and role of education for the masses and therefore have been incapable of investing in human capital stock necessary for technological growth. The rights and freedom of individuals to travel and opportunity, despite some historical exceptions such as the Soviet bloc and its Iron Curtain, seem to consistently transcend the countries in which they are educated. One must also remember that the ability to have mobility with regards to where people want to move and work is a part of their human capital. Being able to move from one area to the next is an ability and a benefit of having human capital. To restrict people from doing so would be to inherently lower their human capital. This debate resembles, in form, that regarding natural capital. [edit]Classification Human capital is an intangible asset as it is not owned by the firm that employs it. Basically, human capital arrives at 9am and leaves at 5pm. Human capital when viewed from a time perspective consumes time in one of key activities: 1. Knowledge (activities involving one employee), . Collaboration (activities involving more than 1 employee), 3. Processes (activities specifically focused on the knowledge and collaborative activities generated by organizational structure such as silo impacts, internal politics, etc. ) and 4. Absence (annual leave, sick leave, holidays, etc. ). [edit]Risk When human capital is assessed by activity based costing via time allocations it becomes possible to assess human capital risk. Human cap ital risk occurs when the organization operates below attainable operational excellence levels. For example, if a firm could reasonably reduce errors and rework (the Process component of human capital) from 10,000 hours per annum to 2,000 hours with attainable technology, the difference of 8,000 hours is human capital risk. When wage costs are applied to this difference (the 8,000 hours) it becomes possible to financially value human capital risk within an organizational perspective. Human capital risk accumulates in four primary categories: 1. Absence activities (activities related to employees not showing up for work such as sick leave, industrial action, etc. ). Unavoidable absence is referred to as Statutory Absence. All other categories of absence are termed Controllable Absence; 2. Collaborative activities are related to the expenditure of time between more than one employee within an organizational context. Examples include: meetings, phone calls, instructor led training, etc. ; 3. Knowledge Activities are related to time expenditures by a single person and include finding/retrieving information, research, email, messaging, blogging, information analysis, etc. ; and 4. Process activities are knowledge and collaborative activities that result due to organizational context such as errors/rework, manual data transformation, stress, politics, etc.

Management Term Paper

Management Term Paper What is management? It is defined in many ways such as getting things done through others or implementing plans to a defined timescale through the use of available resources. Although these definitions make management sound so simple, the subject has spawned innumerable books and many theories. There are many topics on which you can write management term papers such as management skills, project management, styles of management, marketing management, staff management, management planning, effective management, management techniques, decision making, people management cycle, management models, management responsibilities, the role of manager, security management, management principles and many others. You should show your understanding of the subject of management and should write project management term paper that is organized and arranged in the pattern of introduction, literature review, argumentation, findings and conclusion. How to write a management term paper, which is asked by many management students. If you are assigned to write a management term paper on management skills, you have to include the eight skills that are needed in effective management in your management term paper. The eight skills are planning, listening, delegating effectively, communicating, improving, motivating, measuring and negotiating. In your management term paper for which you are asked to write about management skills, the inclusion of these eight skills is compulsory. You have to make headings for these eight skills in your management term paper and have to describe the skills accordingly. For the heading of planning in your management term paper, you will include information about planning the managers time, that of others, planning budgeting and planning the use of other resources. For the heading of listening in your management term paper, you will include information such as finding out what the tasks are, listening to what the staff thinks about managers ideas and instructions, understanding the re actions of the boss and various peer groups. For delegating effectively, the issues will be to get the job done, to release some of managers time and to grow the staff. Communicating involves upwards, downwards and sideways communication related to management. Improving contains information about again improving management and the staff whether by training, coaching or mentoring. Motivation should be for the manager, the staff, the peer group and the boss. In term paper on management for management skills, measuring includes setting targets and monitoring them, whether they, be personal targets for the manger or the staff. In term paper on management for skills, negotiating will include getting people to do what the manger wants them to do. Management term papers should be written by taking support of relevant headings as described above. You can either read some tips on how to write a term paper on our blog or buy term paper on Management from our company.

SELF-ASSESSMENT MEMO REPORT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SELF-ASSESSMENT MEMO REPORT - Essay Example One of the house rule that I stated heavily influenced me : that my career begins in this course, not when I graduate. Having actively participated in all the activities given I expect a grade of A since . Perhaps, the professor has given me this grade, or at the least, an A-. My learning style is auditory, which means that I readily transmit and process information through listening. By communication with others through verbal discussions, I found it easy to grasp concepts, meaning, as well as underlying messages. Certain realizations occurred to me such as the importance of listening in becoming an effective student; more so, listening is active and not passive. My personality type (ENFJ)has helped me get along well with other students . Also, being an ENFJ type, the interaction with people were confident, positive, and even helpful. When people recognize that you are sociable and helpful as well as a good listener, they are drawn to you. Having this personality type is an asset in my future endeavor on the field of human resource management. Among the learning activities used along the course, the lectures, video clips, and discussions since were well suited to my auditory learning style. Because of this, lectures and concepts were easily synthesized. The video clips also were stimulating since they appealed to my visual and auditory senses. As for the group assignments and presentations, these activities enhanced my communications skills with other students which emphasized the importance of teamwork in delivering a successful output. The skills acquired during the semester were the ability to write good business reports, make persuasive presentations, conduct research effectively, process information critically, and monitor my progress as a student. Valuable insights such as understanding one’s strengths and weaknesses is a fundamental step in choosing the right job have been gained during the semester, leading to the resolution of

VIVA examination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

VIVA examination - Essay Example In his statement, the defendant states that he is married and operates a business that employs two individuals. According to the witness statements document 3 and 4 the defendant did not resist arrest and complied with the arresting officers when he was arrested. When the defendant was granted the pre-charge bail, he did not abscond and willingly returned to the police station to be interviewed on the second occasion. From his antecedents it is also evident that the defendant was born in Lymeshire and has a permanent address. The defendant does not have any outstanding bail commitment and has not made attempt to return to The Void. The Bail Act 1976 provides that the court should presume that the defendant should be granted bail unless there are circumstances to justify refusal of bail. Part II of the act provides circumstances when the defendant need not be granted bail. These circumstances include where it is apparent to the court that the defendant failed to surrender to custody in accordance to bail conditions in a previous bail commitment. The court can also refuse to grant bail if it believes that the defendant was on bail when the offence was committed. Additionally, the court need not grant bail if it is satisfied that there are reasons to believe that the defendant would commit a crime while on bail, refuse to commit to custody, interfere with witness or obstruct justice. Furthermore, the court should not grant bail to the defendant if it is satisfied that the defendant should remain in custody for his own protection (Loveless, 2008). From the defendants statement of proof it is apparent that the defendant did not fail to surrender to custody in accordance to the conditions of the pre-charge bail. The defendant was not on bail when the alleged crime was committed. There is no evidence on record or reason to believe that the defendant would commit a crime while on bail. The defendant does not intend to refuse to commit to

Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 19

Communication - Essay Example This paper discusses this with certain examples. Let’s suppose a workplace in which a male employee is talking to a female employee. The two are in some sort of an argument over a matter related to work. The male employee finally says, â€Å"You know what? I give up. No man can win an argument from a woman.† The female employee becomes offensive and says, â€Å"So you suggest I am right because I am a woman? Not because what I am saying is actually right?† She snaps at the male employee and walks out of the room. This explains how the use of sexist language can serve as a barrier to communication. Now let’s suppose a scenario in which two colleagues are dining together at the cafeteria. One of them is an Indian and the other is an American. The two are having gossip and a good time together. The American colleague orders a Pizza for himself and asks the Indian colleague what he would like to have. The Indian colleague replies, â€Å"I would like to have chicken curry.† Suddenly, the American colleague says, â€Å"Now I know why you Indians smell like curry.† The Indian colleague replies, â€Å"For the same reason that you Americans are so obese.† Seeds of dislike are planted in the hearts of both for each other. Now let’s suppose a situation in which two friends are attending a party. One of them is straight while the other is a gay. The former doesn’t know the homosexual orientation of the latter. The straight guy suggests the gay, â€Å"Hey look, why don’t you pair up with that blonde in the skirt! She’s pretty.† The gay guy manages to change the topic. The straight guy again suggests a suitable match. The gay guy finally says, â€Å"I’m into men†¦OK?† The straight guy says, â€Å"Is that why you’re with me? OMG! All this while, I’ve been with a fag!† The gay guy thinks he has heard enough, and snaps out. Concluding, sexist, racist, and homophobic

Managing Operations Apple Inc Commerce Essay

Managing Operations Apple Inc Commerce Essay Apple Inc is a large multinational in the consumer electronic business that builds on its ability to innovate and use its strong flexibility in product development speed to create competitive capability in the market. Fortune named Apple as the most admired company in the world. However, Apple did not figure in the top ten companies on use of assets, social responsibility, and global competitiveness in this survey. This study explores the reasons for this insofar as they lie in management of operations in the company. A survey of literature reveals that there are few agreements on what constitutes lean or agile manufacturing and disagreement on the correct choice of operations management strategy. We examine whatever one can find in reports, literature, and the companys own publications and compare these to the gleanings from theory to arrive at some recommendations for Apple to consider for operations management strategy. Globalisation has increased complexity of supply chains that need to span several countries with diverse cultures, laws and regulations, and time zones. However, with increasing pressure on the need to conserve non-renewable sources of energy and to mitigate the impact of operations on the environment, globalisation is a process likely to reverse in the not so far future. Apple must prepare for this through innovative strategies in organisation and distribution. We recommend a strategy that simultaneously looks at lean when addressing use of resources and agile manufacturing in addressing customer needs, to meet competition on both, cost and product differentiation, fronts. In looking at lean manufacturing, we strongly recommend moderation in implementation to preserve flexibility and agility. Operations Management Apple Inc Contents Operations Management Apple Inc 1.0 Introduction Apple Inc is a large multinational in the consumer electronic business. The comment of James Collins, editor-in-chief of the T3 Consumer Gadgets Magazine, talking about the iPod exemplifies the image and sheer volume of market penetration achieved by the company; Collins says: Its cool across the board: everyone from my seven-year-old niece to my 60-year-old uncle has one. Norbert Reithofer, CEO of BMW adds to the image in his comment (in Bernasek, 2010): Apples customers are more than customers theyre fans. The whole world held its breath before the iPad was announced. Thats brand management at its very best. Apple builds on its ability to innovate and use its strong flexibility in product development speed to create capability in the market. Consider the fact that Apple introduced 7 different versions of its iPod within four and a half years of launch (Levy, 2006). Despite not being the first-to-market, it has used this capability to leverage its expertise in the iPod, iPhone, iTunes, iWorks suite of products and command a premium on all its products (Boddie, 2005). However, on the critical issues of use of assets, social responsibility, and global competitiveness it does not score favourably (money.cnn.com). As long as Apples products command a premium, and as long as it can continue introducing innovative new products this does not appear a serious concern. However, it is the contention of this report that despite these factors, Apple stands to gain tremendously by using modern operations management concepts such as Lean Manufacturing (which we alter to Lean And Green), Supply Chain Ma nagement, Quality Management etc. In this report, we look at these concepts in some detail to demonstrate how they can help Apple meet its commitments to its stakeholders and meet the need for Corporate Social Responsibility. 2.0 Background Apple Inc. (Apple) is a multinational consumer electronic corporation headquartered in Cupertino, California in America established in 1977. The company designs, manufactures, and sells hardware and software products for computers, entertainment, and portable music systems. Some of its best-known products include the iPod, the iPhone, its desktop and the MacBook Air line of laptops. Vital backup through software for computers and its iTunes virtual music store form important parts of its operations (google.com). Since its inception, the company did moderately well as a number of CEOs changed between 1977 and 1997 when Steve Jobs, the founder of the company, returned to take charge of the company. Steve has remained the CEO since then, except for short periods in 2004 and 2009 when Tim Cook charge during his absence on medical grounds. Since 1997, the company has grown phenomenally and presently employs 35,000 personnel and recorded revenue of $42.91 billion for the year ended September 26, 2009 (finance.yahoo.com). Young and Simon (2005) call Steves return and the growth of Apple following his return the greatest second act in the history of business in the subtitle of their book. Its stock prices dropped to a low of $82.33 on January 12, 2009 from the previous high of $193.91 on December 17, 2007 mostly in response to the economic turndown that affected all companies. Since then, the stock has risen steadily and traded at $226.60 on March 8, 2010 (ibid). Apple has established a unique image for itself through its characteristic advertising and the design of its products. The Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the world in 2009 (Colvin, 2009). Again, in 2010, Fortune named Apple as the most admired company in the world (money.cnn.com [b]), based on a survey among industry leaders using nine criteria. Importantly, from the viewpoint of this report, Apple did not figure in the top ten companies on counts of: Use of Assets, Social Responsibility, Financial Soundness, Long Term Investment, and Global Competitiveness It rated No.1 and No. 4 on Innovation and Product quality respectively. The same report records that Apple have so far sold 250 million iPods, 43 million iPhones, and 32 million iPod Touch, and introduced the game changing iPad portable computer. In 2006, the Mail on Sunday carried a report that alleged Apples contract manufacturers in China, Foxcom and Inventec, were using sweatshop conditions for the production of the iPod (mailonsunday.com); The Washington Post followed washingtonpost.com [a]). Apple took immediate action to investigate and correct the situation (washingtonpost.com [b]). 3.0 Theories of Operations Management In the emerging scenario for manufacturing enterprises, three trends evident are the deployment of technology and effort towards lean and green manufacturing, quality management (TQM) and the impact of globalisation on the thought processes of business. In the following passages, we draw on existing research to discuss the points of convergence and the conflicts between different approaches to operations management. 3.1 TQM and Lean Pettersen (2009) says that it is very difficult to find a definition of lean despite this being a popular management concept. Some authors have attempted to define the concept while others have questioned whether it is indeed possible to understand the meaning of lean management through a narrow and restrictive definition (ibid). This researcher (Pettersen, 2009) carried out detailed investigation of lean and its closest relative TQM that threw up a number of observations that help us understand the concept of lean and TQM. The most important observation is that the two groups [,] human relations management and supply chain management are not definable characteristics of lean they are important (although not vital) parts of the lean concept (ibid: 132). On the other hand, TQM sees employees as components in the production process that cannot be trusted to produce good quality and focuses on removing possibilities of human error from the system. In addition, this author finds diverge nce in the general opinion that lean implies waste reduction, and says that lean aims at two different types of goals; those that are internally focussed, and those that look outward. While internally focused initiatives may look at cost reduction the externally focused may seek a goal of higher customer satisfaction. In addition, Pettersen (2009) finds divergence in the opinion that lean is a set of practical waste-reduction tools compared to others who believe lean is a philosophical approach to operations management. In his discussion of the similarities and differences between lean and TQM Pettersen (2009) points out that in lean quality is a secondary consideration and decreasing cost through waste reduction is an important concept to lean with some research saying that waste reduction adds to customer value. Waste reduction is a significant aspect of TQM, but under the banner of poor-quality-costs (ibid: 134). Perspectives of the two systems also differ. TQM focuses on the int ernal structure of the organisation while lean sees the need to address the entire supply chain where the internal organisation is one part of a value-creating stream. Another major point of departure between TQM and lean is that TQM strongly emphasises investigation of customer requirements while lean does not emphasise this as strongly. However, there appears to be convergence in literature that lean manufacturing implies a constant focus on reducing waste of all types, i.e. waste of materials, time, equipment, space, inventories, and human effort across the entire supply chain (Corbett Klassen, 2006). This focus leads to management of operations in such a way that helps improve quality, reduce costs, and improved service to customers located all over the globe. Pettersen (2009) also points to the many similarities in the two systems of TQM and lean. Both see quality as the responsibility of senior management and focus on removing the human factor to reduce errors. This requires management to concentrate on analysing and improving processes and training people to achieve better quality and cost reduction. Both also focus on continuous improvement through learning with a small difference, TQM looks to stimulate creativity and learning for the individual and quality a result of individual efforts while lean emphasises standardisation of work and collective learning. Both TQM and lean see the importance of supplier and internal worker team participation through long-term partnerships. 3.2 Globalisation, Green and Supply Chain Management Globalisation, provided impetus by the information technology revolution and the lowering of trade and other barriers by nation states, has witnessed increased and free movement of capital and labour across national boundaries. For manufacturing operations, this has meant offshoring of production, inventories, and suppliers as firms look to find customers across the world and to benefit from the differences in economies, infrastructures, and the regulatory mechanisms that exist in different countries and regions (Manuj Mentzer, 2008). These authors state that firms have restructured their supply chains to operate on a global basis to take advantage of the international product, factor, and capital markets (Manuj Mentzer, 2008: 133). Therefore, we can see globalisation as a strong influence on revenue generation by enabling entry into new markets and finding vendors who can supply goods of the same quality at cheaper prices and improved logistics for existing markets. Continuing tre nds since the last few years have seen companies shift their entire manufacturing lines to regions that offer competitive facilities to reduce manufacturing costs. These processes come with some serious downsides also as evident from the complexity of management of a supply chain that extends across several countries that have different laws and regulations, time zones, and cultures. In their drive to outsource production many companies, including Apple, find themselves accused of adopting work and labour practices completely unacceptable to western sensibilities but which are okay in those countries. In this last statement, we hasten to add, there is a fallacy in that it is not the acceptability of sweatshops in the host countries of the subsidiaries but more a question of poor monitoring and governance. An added dimension is the increasing stakeholder pressure to ensure sustainability of operations through restraints on the use of non-renewable natural resources, and controlling pollution and emissions that lead to climate change (Sarkis, 2001; Kovacs, 2008). This pressure to go green requires firms to work with their suppliers and customers to change production processes and promote recycling. Within the organisation, firm now need to analyse their operations and processes, and assume extended stewardship through the entire life cycle of their products to diminish impact on the natural environment through changes that reflect a positive attitude toward corporate social responsibility (Corbett Klassen, 2006). The difficulty remains on how to measure the environmental impact of the operations of a firm as no metrics, except for the ISO 14000 standard. This standard sets out the procedures for identifying environmental aspects of site operations, safe handling and disposal procedures for hazardous materials and waste, and compliance with relevant environmental legislation (Corbett Kirsch, 2001), but does little to provide a metric for measuring the environmental footprint of a multinational and multi-location firm. Where companies deploy outsourcing as a strategy they may face resistance from suppliers reluctant to adopt green practices as they see these as time consuming and expensive (Larson Greenwood, 2004) and requiring high upfront investment for changing manufacturing technologies on which the return on investment is low (Rothenberg et al, 2001). In implementing greener manufacturing firms need to look beyond mere cost efficiencies because such initiatives deliver benefits difficult to quantify into money earned, but are substantial nevertheless (Larson Greenwood, 2004). Friedman (2008) points to the example of Wal-Mart who found that their lean and green initiatives improved financial performance and earned them respect from customers. This respect translates to customer preference to buy from environmentally responsible firms and pay a price premium, which can finally influence the bottom line positively. However, having considered that going green holds a number of potential benefits for the firm; it is understandable that global suppliers, not into retailing, may not find these as plausible reasons to make investments for converting to a greener manufacturing technology. Gattiker et al (2008: 28) say that [. . .] it is difficult to ask suppliers to engage in environmental practices when the buying organization lacks (or is perceived to lack) environmental commitment and concrete practices. Thus, buyers may need to get their own house in order before requiring the same of suppliers, or vice versa. In the considerations that we have discussed above, one can see numerous conflicts that may arise. For example, lean manufacturing requires movement of materials within the supply chain based on demand. Earlier concepts of safety stocks, bulk purchases to avail discounts, and inventory holding have become passà © as firms focus on Just-in-time (JIT) inventory management. However, this requires purchase, production, packaging, and transport of ever reducing batches of materials that can adversely affect the green approach. Christopher and Lee (2004) discuss this conflict at length to conclude that, in the context of global supply chains, lean manufacturing results in longer lead times and more inventories that contradicts lean management principles. In this, they extend the findings of an earlier research by Levy (1995) that concluded that globalisation of the supply chain results in higher levels of pollution because of the longer transport routes and smaller batches. Rothenberg et al. (2001), in their investigation of the automobile industry, also point to the fact that implementation of lean processes, waste reduction measures do not add to environmental performance or pollution reduction, and that the relation is negative. This contradiction requires the firm to rethink its approach to overcome the negatives of JIT operations and find innovative solutions that may involve re-useable packaging and reduced container sizes and product mix to decrease package volume. It is difficult to identify such strategies for global supply chains. 4.0 Operations Management Theories and Apple Inc How Apple manages its global supply chains is not readily discernible from company literature and research documents. The only mention found is on page 16 of the Industrial Engineer magazine that quotes Mike Janes talking of Tim Cook the fill-in chief executive of Apple in the absence of Steve Jobs away on medical leave. Mike says, Supply chain management, which seems so incredibly unsexy, is very sexy when you look at your bank account and you have managed the product transitions perfectly. Thats the thing that Tim is absolutely a master at. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Tim is an amazing, brilliant mind when it comes to operational excellence and is really a master of execution Tim Cook is right at the top of the list. Apple enjoys a unique position in the market in that it does not look to measure and investigate customer requirements but looks to create customer needs by offering innovative and feature-rich products, which at first sight the customer do not require but soon become a need through use of the product. Another issue that most research in the area of operations management seen in the light of globalisation and environmental pressures misses is the need to think local while going global. The reducing quantities of available natural resources, especially oil, and the disagreement on use of nuclear energy, the only viable alternative and increasing pressure on issues related to climate change require companies to rethink their strategies. Apple, in its manufacturing processes emitted 3.87 million tonnes of greenhouse gases in 2010, added to this is the 5.40 million tonnes that the use of their products by their customers added to the burden. These together represent 91% of the total emissions of pollutants for which Apple is responsible (apple.com[a]). While Apple, in various statements on its website, says that they are taking proactive action on these issues and are industry leaders in this respect, we believe Apple has to keep an eye on the future and use its strengths of innovation and agile management to initiate action that will help it and the industry. Steve Jobs says that Apple is far ahead of competitors in these areas and by 2010 Apple will be recycling about 28% of its product in America compared to Dell or HP who achieve about 10%. A reason behind this, Steve explains, is the use of high quality materials that recyclers look for (apple.com[b]). Apple has taken a number of actions on its own and in compliance with government regulations to mitigate its impact on the environment. Some of the salient actions are the phasing out of lead batteries in 1991, stoppage of use of CFCs in manufacturing, and implementation of the ISO 14000 quality standards in 1996 (apple.com[e]). In 2000, all its manufacturing sites were ISO 14001 certified (calrecycle.ca.gov). 5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations Morrison (2010) uses an analysis of the success factors at Apple to recommend a set of four mantras that other companies could emulate. The first is that one needs to avoid following the herd, a strategy Apple adopted in avoiding the building of a miniature laptop and instead came out with the ultra-thin Air, a product in line with the Apple image. Next, he says is that a company should not back out from fights it can win, a strategy Apple displayed when it pulled NBCs television programs from the iTunes Store in 2007. NBC backed off within days and now other media companies hesitate to face Apple on pricing. Third, says Morrison is to flatten hierarchies within the organisation, as deep vertical structures tend to dither when it is time to act. Finally, and most relevantly to the context to quality management, Apple has never looked at market research or to emulate its competitors but goes by its own feel to create products like the iPod and the iPhone, which create their own market . While several companies have adopted some of these strategies, none of them has used all four together. The result is the spate of innovative products that make Apple the most valued company in the world. Morrison says Apples culture has codified a habit that is especially valuable for firms that make physical things: Stop, step back from your product, and take a closer look. Without worrying about how much work youve already put into it, is it really as good as it could be? Apple asks that question constantly. Hallgren and Olhager (2009) find that in intensely competitive markets, the firm has the option of choosing to distinguish itself on price or on product differentiation, and the choice of operations management must align with the chosen strategy. Lean management is good where the firms aims at cost leadership where processes are repetitive, require adherence to predetermined schedules, a steady flow through the production process. Conversely, where high customisation, changing variety of products, and agility to introduce new products is the determinant of competitive strategy, the firm should choose agile manufacturing. Examining the internal and external factors these researchers (ibid) use a comprehensive review of literature that lean and agile manufacturing differ in the results, one helps cost leadership and the other can significantly raise costs to obtain agility. Examining the case of Apple, it is evident that the correct strategy must consist of agile manufacturing. However , we do not agree with Hallgren and Olhager (2009) that lean and agile are mutually exclusive strategies. In this, we find support in the earlier work of Katayama and Bennett (1999) who proposed that a combination of lean and agile is mandatory for long-term competitiveness. These writers see the need for a firm to think lean when addressing resources and agile when looking to build capabilities to meet customer requirements. We recommend this strategy to Apple. Chen et al (2009) discuss lean concepts and point to potential pitfalls that an overzealous implementation can cause. They emphasise that lean management aims to eliminate waste, effectively manage personnel, distribute design among entities that are best at each stage, work with the supply chain, manage customers, and wisely manage the organizations finances. Their (ibid) paper draws attention to the fact that in addressing elimination of waste the firm may risk elimination of creative time that is so essential for innovation. Focussing on short-term value creation through cost reductions may threaten competitive ability that can only come through radical and disruptive innovations. Similarly, when a company focuses on building a lean supply chain they risk disruptions of the processes that late or faulty shipments and failure of any of the links in the supply chain (Chen et al, 2009).In these warnings, we see echoes of the very strengths that Apple relies on to lead competition. Using the recommendations of Chen et al (2009), we can see that in order to derive maximum benefit from lean operations Apple needs to maintain a high flexibility and agility in its design and manufacturing capabilities linked to the innovative spirit exemplified in its motto Think Different. However, this does not imply that Apple has no use of the concept of lean; it is through careful and moderate application of its principles that the company can build strength to meet the stress of economic and political disruptions, and most vitally meet the growing competition brought about by rapid globalisation. Word Count: 3483

A Patriarchic Society in Aphra Behns The Rover Essay -- Aphra Behn Ro

A Patriarchic Society in Aphra Behn's The Rover In her play The Rover, Aphra Behn uses the treatment of women to suggest the presence of a strong patriarchic society and what harm can become of it. The main female character Florinda is manipulated, used, and treated horribly by men in instances of near-rape, battering and beating, and foul language among other things. Behn also uses Willmore, one of the main male characters, and his attitude towards women to prove her point. By doing this, Behn is suggesting patriarchy is dangerous for women, and their lack of fighting against it presupposes what can happen to women over time if this strong patriarchic society is allowed to flourish. In act three, Florinda is almost raped by a drunken Willmore. He doesn’t know who she is, he thinks she’s just, â€Å"A female! By this light, a woman! I’m a dog if it be not a very wench† (III.v.16 –17). This shows that he only sees her as a sex object. He then tries to take advantage of her. As she puts up a struggle, he says, â€Å"Come, come, take it or I’ll put it up again†¦Why, how now, mistress, are you so high i’th’ mouth a pistole won’t down with you? ...Come, no struggling to be gone†¦I’m for ye† (III.v.67 – 72), trying to force her into submission. In another instance in act four, the same thing nearly happens again to Florinda when she ventures into Blunt’s house. Blunt has been tricked by another woman and decides to take his revenge out on that woman by sleeping with Florinda. He gets very physical with her and Florinda protests with, â€Å"Dare you be s o cruel?† (IV.v.51). Blunt replies with this heartless speech: â€Å"Cruel? ...as a galley slave, or a Spanish whore†¦I will kiss and beat thee all over, kiss and see thee all over; ... ...the patriarchic society, Florinda’s father and brother won’t allow them to be married. She was treated as a prize awarded to the most eligible candidate. Here, Behn is showing how damaging the patriarchic tradition of arranged marriages can be to those involved. Even though they ended up together, they had to fight a battle to do so. By ending the play this way, Behn is saying people who love each other shouldn’t have to fight to be together, thereby proving this patriarchic practice unfair. By placing an emphasis on the man who uses women as sex objects by titling her play after him; by having almost all the female characters in the play treated horribly, used, and manipulated; and having the female characters barely putting up a fight, Aphra Behn suggests the heavily patriarchic society that exists is too extensive and is dangerous for the women in it.